Site Overview

Turkey

This foundation constructed from river cobblestones at Gulludere dates to the Medieval Period.

The excavation of this small room at the Roman-erabath site of Kayranlıkgözü revealed the heated floor system known as a hypocaust.

A pile of the remains belonging to multiple skeletons was found in one Yuceoren chamber tomb.

Güllüdere

Located in the commercially vital region known as the Erzurum Plain in Turkey, Güllüdere reveals two distinct periods of habitation. The first, dating from the Iron Age (900-300 BC), provides evidence (especially similarities in pottery styles)that the inhabitants had cultural and commercial connections with the nearby sites of Tetikom and Tasmasor. The second period occurred during the Early Medieval Period. Findings from both habitation periods include multiple structural foundations, indicating a settlement and a cemetery either nearby or inside the settlement boundary. The burial practices observed at this cemetery allow archaeologists to link Güllüdere to well-established surrounding settlements in eastern Anatolia.

Of the 44 graves excavated at Güllüdere, 10 were definitively Iron Age. The deceased were buried in two distinct manners, the more elaborate of which involved placing the remains in a large ceramic or terracotta jar. While the exact reasons for this practice have not been determined, it is similar to the burial styles at neighboring sites, indicating a religious link. Following the normal pattern for jar burials in this region, grave goods accompanied the bodies. Those from the Iron Age are believed to have consisted only of the deceased’s personal belongings. (The burial sites at Tetikom or Tasmasor included elaborate gifts, whose absenceat Güllüdere could be the result of grave robbing rather than different spiritual practices.) Despite the general absence of grave goods in the Güllüdere cemetery, archaeologists discovered some stone, ceramic, and metallic objects. A few were well preserved, such as a stone seal depicting a horse, a symbolically important animal in eastern Anatolia.

Aerial view of Gulludere Settlement.

These jar burials most commonly involved children. While adults were buried this way to a lesser extent, no evidence of this was discovered at the Güllüdere cemetery. The more common practice for adults was a simple soil burial, with the deceased placed on one side in a crouching, fetal position. Notably, all but one Iron Age burial site was situated with a north-south orientation, providing more evidence that the residents of Güllüdere at this time had an organized belief system and specific understanding of an afterlife.

It was difficult to analyze Güllüdere’s habitation during the Medieval Period. The foundations of a few Hellenistic structures were discovered but were so damaged that meaningful conclusions were impossible to draw. The graves from this period yielded even less information than those from the Iron Age. A few Christian tombstones were, however, found at the site, implying that Byzantine Christian influences were present at the time of the burials.

Yüceören

The necropolis of chamber tombs at Yüceören, Turkey, dating from the Hellenistic and Roman periods (approximately 3rd century BC to 4thcentury AD), is located near Ceyhan, not far from the Mediterranean terminus of the pipelines. Excavated by archaeologists from Gazi University as part of the pipeline project, the chamber tombs reflect considerable investment in the final disposition of the dead. Large spaces were cut into the bedrock, there were passageways, often with steps, and stone doors closed off the burial chambers. The chambers in most cases contained one or more niches to hold the dead. It appears that the deceased were often placed in coffin like terracotta sarcophagi. The discovery of an antechamber with the disturbed remains of nearly two dozen people suggests that, over the long history of use of the tombs, individuals’ remains were moved in order to reuse the burial niches. This antechamber appeared to be the only one of the 16 excavated tombs that had not been robbed in antiquity.

Despite the extensive looting, the team from Gazi University recovered an interesting range of objects. They included coins dating from the Hellenistic Period (late 3rd century BC) to the Roman Imperial Period (early 2nd century AD). The coins may have been placed in the graves to pay for passage into the underworld. Other finds included glass and ceramic unguentaria (jars for oils and lotions), which may have been left in the graves after final treatment of the bodies, and small portable lamps that family members who placed the bodies in the tombs may have left behind. One of two clay figurines depicts a child riding a horse and wearing a headdress of ivy leaves; it may have been made in the Turkish city of Tarsus during the late 2nd century BC.

Near the Yüceören site, the BTC pipeline bringing oil from the Caspian ends at the Mediterranean coast, the terminus of this massive engineering feat that has transformed the region’s economic landscape, and has contributed so greatly to our understanding of the cultural history of the countries through which the pipeline passes.

These photographs show klines, which are niches cut into the walls of burial chambers where the remains of individuals were placed, instead of in a sarcophagus.

Ziyaretsuyu

The Romans were famous for their paved roads and intricate trade systems, concepts that seem elementary today but were truly innovative 2000 years ago. The roads were crucial to Rome’s military efficiency and commercial prosperity. In 2003, at the Ziyaretsuyu settlement, which was along one such Roman road in what is now the Sivas Province of central Turkey, a team from Gazi University unearthed two distinct and likely related structures. The sheer abundance of ceramics recovered from the two buildings suggests that the team uncovered only a fraction of what is likely a larger settlement. While the poor condition of the buildings’ structures suggests that the people who lived within them were not wealthy, the site was probably densely populated.

Although archaeologists date the site primarily to the Roman Period, there is evidence it was active slightly earlier, in the 2nd century BC. Architectural and ceramic elements there display some Hellenistic characteristics, and a coin found in the same cultural stratigraphic layer as the excavated buildings and dated from between 105BC and 70 BC portrays the image of Hercules. Unfortunately, the coin was so damaged that vital information such as the location of the mint was not recoverable. The coin also indicates that Ziyaretsuyu was a place of commerce linked to Roman and Greek societies. If so, why were there so few architectural and metallic remnants? Historians suggest that the answer lies in the geographical position of the settlement.

Ziyaretsuyu was situated in a region neighboring the highland Galatians to the west and Cappadocians to the south. Consistent pillaging by these advanced societies likely affected the residents of Ziyaretsuyu and could explain the scarcity of prestige items, such as jewelry and other metallic objects, along with construction styles consistent with a simple seasonal (hence poor) settlement. With warfare continuously destroying their structures, the residents might have had less incentive or economic ability to rebuild lavish homes. These theories are, however, speculative, and will surely benefit from additional research and excavation at Ziyaretsuyu and related sites.

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Cultural History

Turkey

The tomb sanctuary of King Antiochus I at Mount Nemrud was built on a mountaintop in what is now southeastern Turkey in 62 BC. Antiochus I forged an alliance with Rome during the war between Rome and the Parthians. (Image courtesy of the Embassy of the Republic of Turkey).

The lavish Topkapi Palace complex in Istanbul, Turkey, was the primary residence of Ottoman. (Image courtesy of the Embassy of the Republic of Turkey).

Magnificently spanning the Bosporus Strait, the First Bosporus Bridge in Istanbul connects Orakoy(in Europe) and Beylerbeyi (in Asia). Completed in1973, the bridge embodies Turkey’s historic role linking Europe and Asia. (Image courtesy of the Embassy of the Republic of Turkey).

Late Bronze Through the Iron Age
1600 - 400 B.C.

Anatolia was known as the “Land of the Hatti” by the Akkadians as early as the third millennium BC, after the Bronze Age people who dominated the region. The Hittites, an Indo-European-speaking people, replace the Hattis as rulers of Anatolia early in the second millennium BC. The Hittites adopted cuneiform writing from Assyrian traders and assumed control of the trading colonies spread throughout Anatolia. At its height, the Hittite Kingdom extended to Syria and Upper Mesopotamia, with its capital at Hattusa.

These cave dwellings, built into “fairy chimneys” near Goreme in Cappadocia in central Turkey, appear to have been occupied in the Late Bronze Age, around the time of the Hittite Empire. (Image courtesy of the Embassy of the Republic of Turkey)

By the second half of the 13th century BC, the Hittite Kingdom was in decline and being pressured economically and politically by its neighbors. It fought the Egyptians in the Levant under Ramses II, saw the Assyrians defeat its vassal state of Mittani in northern Syria, and faced incursions by the Sea Peoples (a confederacy of seafaring raiders). In 1180 BC the Kingdom collapsed and devolved into a number of neo- Hittite city states, including Tabal in southeast Anatolia and the Mushki Kingdom in Cappadocia (both now part of Turkey), Carchemish (on the frontier between Turkey and Syria), and Kammanu (in south-central Anatolia). The end of the Hittite Kingdom caused established political, military, economic, and social relations to change throughout eastern Anatolia, leading to the political and economic instability of the Early Iron Age.

An Early Iron Age Settlement at Büyükardıç Hill presented difficult conditions for settlers. Agriculture in this mountainous area was difficult due to the high altitude (2,050m), and long distance from the creek valley below. Yet within this context of a hilltop overlooking a key transportation corridor in northeastern Anatolia, a successful settlement appears to have flourished. This intriguing settlement yields insights into what was happening in this period of political unrest. Even though this region was a great crossroads for trade and culture, in some historic periods those relationships declined very significantly, and there was a pronounced shift in focus to self-sufficiency in preference to trade. Büyükardıç Hill would have been strategically significant to any ambitious King because it was situated at the center of crucial east-west trading routes that extended from the Araxes and Karasu valleys of the Caucasus, connecting Persia to Eastern Anatolia. Passing through this territory, given its high altitude would have only been possible from spring to autumn, as snow packs blocked winter travel.

As the forces holding the region together (primarily the power of the Hittite Empire) collapsed, as major trade and population centers were abandoned or ruined in warfare, and as the movement of goods and people became a perilous undertaking, self-sufficient settlements like Büyükardıç emerged in easily defended mountainous areas. Evidence of this change were uncovered in Büyükardıç: the discovery of a possible Early Iron Age metal working shop suggests that an attempt at a measure of self-sufficiency, and the ceramics found at the site appear to be mainly of local origin. The settlement’s location on a hilltop and the discovery of several metal arrow points also suggest its occupants were very concerned with defense, even though the site itself was unfortified. Yet despite Büyükardıç’s residents apparent desire for self sufficiency, the turbulent political climate of the region forced smaller communities to occasionally form alliances in order to survive threats.

The abundance of coarse, handmade pottery without surface treatment found at Büyükardıç is typical of the Early Iron Age. However the 6,650 potsherds categorized into nineteen distinct ware groups uncovered at this site establishes the diverse range of stylistic and developmental attributes present onsite. Functionally, archaeologists have determined that some Büyükardıç potters used wheel looms, while others were hand-made. In terms of design, Büyükardıç pottery displays red-slip, burnished, grooved, notched, incised, concentric circular impressions, rosette stamps, and painted decorations. Many of these features share commonalities with vessels found in Northwestern Iran, Georgia, Armenia, and Eastern Thrace. Thus providing further evidence that trade was prevalent at Büyükardıç.

This grooved clay vessel uncovered at the Büyükardıç site contained iron residue and the two holes in its shoulder. The vessel, an artifact commonly found at Bronze and Iron Age sites in eastern Anatolia, was likely used for heating and creating metal objects.

Findings at Büyükardıç represent the transitional period from Late Bronze to Early Iron Age that occurred in Anatolia during the 12th century and was probably built soon after the collapse of the Hittite capital. Most Early Iron Age settlements of the region were fortified and resettled following the collapse. The site is unique in that respect because it was not resettled, and thus provides crucial material evidence that has not been disturbed as drastically as related sites that were resettled.

During the 6th and 5th centuries BC, the Persian Achaemenid Empire had spread outwards with increasing power from its capital at Susa. In the middle of the 1st millennium BC, the Empire came to include all of Anatolia and the southern Caucasus highlands. Sites excavated during the pipelines project at Tetikom and Tasmasor, situated along one of the ancient roads connecting central Anatolia with the highlands to the east and the Araxes River valley, have vastly enriched knowledge of the region under Achaemenid rule during the Late Iron Age.

Perhaps the longest continuously inhabited site found during the archaeological excavations during this project was Tasmasor. Discovered at Tasmasor Hill, and located on the Erzurum Plain of Northeastern Turkey, Tasmasor was of great geopolitical importance as competing empires vied for dominance in the ancient world. The Erzurum and Pasinler Plains separated by the Kargapazari mountain range form a natural pass just south of Tasmasor connecting two important regions of Northeast Anatolia, as well as allowing access from Anatolia into the Caucasus and Iranian steppe. Control of this gateway, known as the Deveboynu pass, was crucial for east-west trade connections in Anatolia, and was one of the few passable routes available for Iron Age empires.

Guided by Assoc. Prof. S. Yücel Şenyurt, the excavation of Tasmasor Hill initially uncovered a medieval housing complex dating to the 12th century AD, which contained minimal material remains. In the midst of unearthing this structure, Şenyurt’s team chanced upon two pit burials that displayed characteristics common to this region during the Iron Age. Soon after structural foundations made from river stones were found accompanying the previously discovered graves.

Unfortunately the original provenance of artifacts discovered at Tasmasor has been lost as the natural stratigraphy of this site was unsettled from continuous reoccupation. This hindered the ability for Şenyurt and his team to accurately cross-reference material found at Tasmasor with that of neighboring sites believed to share cultural characteristics.

Hellenistic, Roman, Byzantine Periods
400 B.C. - 700 A.D.

The Hellenistic period that began around the time of Alexander the Great greatly influenced the regions of Anatolia lying along the pipeline corridor. The Battle of Issus—the second of three great battles between the Alexander’s Macedonian army and the Persian Achaemenids—was fought in 333 BC on a plain approximately 30 kilometers from Ceyhan, the terminus of the BTC pipeline. Emperor Darius III personally led the Persian forces at Issus. Although the Macedonians were heavily outnumbered and cut off from their supply lines, they crushed the Persians, forcing Darius to flee. He consolidated his army for the subsequent Battle of Gaugamela, where the Achaemenids experienced their final, crucial defeat.

These classical-era pieces are part of the collection of the Istanbul Archaeology Museum. (Image courtesy of the Embassy of the Republic of Turkey)

Within a few years of these triumphs, Alexander was dead, and Macedonian General Seleucus established his own dynasty in the parts of Alexander’s domain he then acquired. The Seleucid Empire lasted for several hundred years and established control over much of the South Caucasus and Eastern Anatolia. It proved to be a fascinating melting pot of leadership from the Macedonian and Greco-Mediterranean worlds, of indigenous cultures, and of political hierarchies inherited from the Achaemenids. The resulting Hellenistic culture combined elements from east (Persian/Achaemenid) and west (Greco/ Mediterranean). It was expressed in new forms of art and architecture, an expanding pantheon of gods, and the spread of a culturally distinctive style in ceramics and other crafts. Powerful Mediterranean influences also spread throughout eastern Anatolia and the South Caucasus during the Hellenistic Period. Roman control of the region reinforced economic and social connections there.

Two Turkish sites researched during the pipelines project, Yuceoren and Ziyaretsuyu, represent the Hellenistic and the Roman Periods respectively. The necropolis of Yuceoren, located near the pipeline terminus at Ceyhan, contains numerous tombs cut into the bedrock, where portions of a sarcophagus and articles used to treat the dead were found. The settlement site of Ziyaretsuyu, near Sivas in northeastern Anatolia, contains the remains of a few domestic structures, painted ceramics and amphorae (large storage vessels), and a terracotta figurine that provides a fine example of classical traits. (Both sites are discussed in greater detail in the "Site Overviews" section.)

During the 3rd century AD, the Roman Empire began to encounter a range of challenges that led to its decline. These challenges included economic decline, invasions by “barbarians,” and a general decay of the social fabric that had been a major source of the Empire’s appeal to its inhabitants. By the last decades of the century, the leadership in Rome was desperate for a way to maintain control of its sprawling Empire. To this end, Emperor Diocletian divided rule of the Empire’s western and eastern parts between himself and a co- Emperor, Maximian. Less than a decade later, they added two additional, junior Emperors. These four rulers, the Tetrarchy, held court in different parts of the Empire.

After Diocletian’s death in the early 4th century AD, years of conflict erupted as various aspirants vied to rule the Empire. By 312 AD, Constantine emerged as the most powerful, although the conflicts lasted until 324, when he gained complete authority over the Empire.

The Library of Celsus at Ephesus, Turkey, was completed in 135 AD. (Image courtesy of the Embassy of the Republic of Turkey)

Constantine was one of the pivotal figures of the first millennium AD. A convert to Christianity, he eventually established the precedence of this religion within the Empire. He also moved the seat of his rule from Rome to Byzantium on the Bosphorus and renamed it Constantinople (now Istanbul), thus shifting the Empire’s center of gravity to the eastern Mediterranean. Over time, the eastern part of the Roman Empire came to be known as the Byzantine Empire. During the 5th and 6th centuries AD, the eastern Empire grew in power and splendor, reaching its height during the 6th century AD under the reign of Emperor Justinian, who introduced the Justinian Code, attempted to reestablish his authority over the western parts of the Empire, and presided over great artistic achievements such as the construction of the Hagia (or Aya) Sophia (Church of the Holy Wisdom).

The Byzantine Empire dominated much of the eastern Mediterranean for several centuries, at its height controlling territory from Saudi Arabia to the Balkans, including all of Anatolia, and spreading the Christianity of the Byzantine Orthodox Church throughout the region. Eventually, however, the Empire lost ground, first to the incursions of the Arabs and later the Turks. Islamic armies poured out of Arabia in the 7th century AD, capturing the Levant, Mesopotamia, and Egypt within a few years. By late in the century, a boundary between the Byzantine Empire and Arab world was established that lasted well into the 11th century AD, running from west of Ceyhan through eastern Anatolia to the highlands west of Azerbaijan. By the 8th century AD, the Abbasid Caliphate had established a powerful capital at Baghdad, from which it led the Muslim world.

Archaeological excavations along the pipeline corridor provided several glimpses into the world of eastern Anatolia during the Byzantine Empire. Most of the sites are domestic in nature— simple villages and communities of ordinary people who probably went about their daily lives knowing little about the Byzantine Empire or the Emperor in Constantinople. Two sites however at Kayranlikgözü (a public bath complex) and Minnetpinari, provide glimpses of the more public side of the Empire.

One of the more fascinating sites along the pipeline corridor is the Roman period bath complex located at Kayranlıkgözü of Turkey’s Andırın district. Tucked in between the Kayranlık mountain range on one side and 12th century AD Geben Castle on the other, this complex likely dates from the 2nd to 5th centuries AD doesn’t appear to have many structural relatives. Two notable exceptions exist in the archaeological record from this period however, one in Greece and the other in Istanbul. Yet despite similar architectural elements with other contemporary sites in Italy, Greece, North Africa, Europe and Anatolia, Kayranlıkgözü’s design and construction appears to be unique with respect to baths constructed in Roman-controlled areas. This raises some interesting questions regarding the nature of Roman rule, especially surrounding the apparent allowance for local influences in architecture at sites such as Kayranlıkgözü. Furthermore, how did aspects of local customs and transregional trade interact?

The front side of this coin, found at Minnetpinari(where remains of a church with a basilica design were uncovered), shows a lightly crowned and draped bust facing right. On the reverse side, a soldier with helmet and armor is standing with his head also facing right. He holds a lance in his right hand and a shield resting on the ground in his left hand.

As is common at bath sites, Kayranlıkgözü lacked substantial material remains necessary for a concise archaeological analysis. Oftentimes bath complexes will not uncover material remnants, however in the case of Kayranlıkgözü two coins were discovered. Inscriptions observed on these coins suggest that the initial construction of this complex dates to the early 4th century AD. Additionally further metal and glass finds corroborate this estimate.

Minnetpinari, a Roman Period church located near the Turkish village of Başdoğan, provides some evidence of religious practice in Eastern Anatolia. Only the western portion of the basilica church was excavated, yet the church appears to have been built in three distinct phases. Initially the church was constructed atop a three nave floor plan. The ceiling, supported by large cylindrical pillars, magnificently displayed connecting archways around the church. A second, lesser phase of construction elevated the basement up to the same level as the main church floor. Finally a small chapel was attached to the southern nave to complete the church renovations.

The excavations at Minnetpinari uncovered a total of 65 tomb burials. The majority of these burials contained adult males, and with the exception of two graves, no artifacts were found in Minnetpinari’s tombs. Most tombs had a very distinctive arrangement, where two or more small stones were situated around the head of the deceased. Gender and Age also factored into the position of the body. Skeletons laying on their backs was ubiquitous to all of the honored dead, however the hands of male skeletons were crossed at their waist with their hands cupping their elbows. Conversely, female skeletons crossed their hands on top of their chests. Children were positioned with their right hand on their chest with the left hand supporting the right hand’s elbow. The elderly also had their own style as their left hand held the right hand close to the shoulder and right hand supports the left hand’s elbow (pudicita type). These distinctive burial positions were quite common in Christian communities not exclusive to Eastern Anatolia.

Numismatic material found at Minnetepinari has helped to piece together the political history and trade networks of Eastern Anatolia at this time. In Anatolia during the Early Medieval Period, local kings and rulers habitually reissued new coins in their own honor during both their political inauguration and sometimes throughout their reign. Minnetepinari is an interesting site in that it contains coins from multiple empires and time periods. Of the 46 total coins found at the site, 28 belonged to the 13th century Kilikia Kingdom, 4 to the later Islamic period and 4 to the Christian Roman Empire (contemporary to the occupation of the church). All point to the longevity of Minnetepinari and the diverse political climate of Anatolia through time.

The Trikish World after the 7th century A.D.
700 A.D.- Present

In the early 12th century AD, the Seljuk Turks began their incursions into central Anatolia. Turkic peoples had come from Central Asia, where they were the dominant cultural group by the 6th century AD. By the mid-7th century AD, the Göktürks (a nomadic confederation of Turks) built an empire that included the South Caucasus, but dynastic infighting led to its collapse. The Seljuks, a clan within the nomadic Oghuz peoples of the Aral steppes, established a dynasty that came to dominate the tribes that had moved into the Abbasid Caliphate during the 9th and 10th centuries AD. At first employed by the Caliphate as slaves and soldiers, the Seljuks gradually assumed greater authority as they adopted Islam, which they injected with new energy. By the 11th century AD, the Seljuks had wrested control of Mesopotamia and eastern Anatolia from the Caliphate and advanced to Persia, before turning their attention to the Byzantine Empire to the west.

The Hagia Sophia in Istanbul contains examples of the finest mosaic art, including this famous mosaic depicting Jesus Christ. (Image courtesy of the Embassy of the Republic of Turkey)

In 1071, at the Battle of Malazgirt, the Seljuks, led by Alp Arslan, defeated a Byzantine army in eastern Anatolia and captured the Emperor, Romanos IV Diogenes. (Although freed soon thereafter, he was deposed.) Within a few decades, the Seljuks had driven the Byzantine forces to the Sea of Marmara, and exerted Turkic dominance across much of Anatolia.

The Seljuk Empire had an important historical role in the dissemination of the Islamic faith and in its defense against anti-Islamic crusaders from Europe. It lost its dominance over Anatolia, although it remained a force in Mesopotamia and Anatolia until its final collapse under pressure from the Mongols in 1243. The Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm, a fragment of the dismembered empire, controlled a large part of central and eastern Anatolia as far as Lake Van until the end of the 13th century—in its latter years, as a vassal state to the Mongol Empire. The Sultanate, which ruled for over 200 years, helped to establish the Turkish character of the region, and created a system of han or caravanserai (roadside commercial buildings along trade routes) that fostered commerce from central Asia to the Mediterranean.

For 350 years, the Byzantines managed to fight off the Seljuk Turks. By the 14th century AD, however, a new force among the Seljuks’ successors had emerged, marking the beginning of a new era. Anatolian beyliks (Turkic states ruled by beys) gained power as the Sultanate of Rûm declined. One of the beyliks, led by Osman I of the Osmanoğlu, spread its power across western Anatolia, forming the basis for the Ottoman Empire. During the 14th century, Osman’s descendants gained greater control of Anatolia. After their victory against the Byzantines at the Battle of Adrianople in 1365, they moved their capital to Adrianople in what is now the European part of Turkey. This defeat isolated Constantinople from the rest of Europe and positioned the Ottomans to move against Greece and the Balkans. Within two decades, the Ottomans took control over much of the southern Balkans. This Ottoman expansion was halted in 1402, following defeat at the hands of the Mongol warlord Tamerlane at the Battle of Ankara, and for a time, the Ottomans were vassals of the Mongols.

Colak Abdi Pasha, the bey of the then-Bayazit Province, constructed the Ishak Pasha Palace during the late 17th century AD. The location is now known at Agri Province, Turkey, not far from Mount Ararat (Ağrı Dağı). (Image courtesy of the Embassy of the Republic of Turkey)

The expansion of the Ottoman Empire resumed under the Sultans Mehmet I, Murad II, and Mehmet II. It was under Mehmet II, known as the Conqueror that Constantinople finally fell to the Ottomans in 1453 AD, bringing the Byzantine Empire to a close. Mehmet II continued the expansion into the Balkans. At the time of his death in 1481, the Ottomans had an army in Italy marching on Rome. Under Selim I and Suleiman I (known as the Magnificent), the Empire came to include much of the Middle East and the Levant, Egypt, and North Africa. In 1529, Suleiman pushed westward and laid siege to Vienna. Although Vienna’s defenders held out against the Ottomans, the attack underscored the threat that a powerful Ottoman Empire posed to Europe, a threat that lasted for three more centuries, as the rising powers of the West faced off against the Ottomans in numerous battles from Gibraltar to the Black Sea. The result is the patchwork of numerous Christian and Islamic communities that co-exist in the region today. The Ottomans were dominant over a vast area and continued to control much of the Mediterranean region until World War I. Today Turkic peoples can be found from Anatolia through central Asia to western China. In Anatolia, Turkish society combined elements of the classical and Byzantine worlds with eastern cultural influences.

Two archaeological sites found along the pipelines corridor in Turkey relate to the Ottoman Period. Cilhoroz and Akmezar are located near Erzincan in northeastern Anatolia, not far from the great trade routes that passed through Erzurum. Both sites date from the final years of Byzantine control of the region and illustrate the simple, rural side of Anatolian life during the Middle Ages.

The fertile lands of the Erzincan-Çayırlı region, where the Akmezar settlement was located, were well suited for irrigation and also on transportation routes. Ceramics dating from the 11th to the 14th centuries AD, found at Akmezar, displayed a limited number of sgraffito glazed and other decoration techniques. A large number of practical containers typically used for storage and transportation were present, indicating a settlement of modest size and regional influence. Both the Erzincan and Çayırlı regions during the 11th though 14th centuries were densely populated, yet seem to have had a highly mobile population. Many of the structures uncovered in this area were crudely built and could be abandoned easily. Ram sculptures were also found at Akmezar, Başköy and other villages.

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Capacity Building

Turkey

Cultural heritage efforts in Turkey under the pipeline project have focused mainly on capacity building at the regional museums where most of the collections from the excavations were deposited. The museums are located in the provinces of Kars, Erzurum, Sivas, Kahramanmaras, and Adana, which lie along the route. The project began with needs assessments developed by the directorates for the museums, and has involved investment in equipment, training, and publications. The project under took the capacity-building work in Turkey inconjunction with the Association of Archaeologists, Gazi University, and the British Institute of Archaeology, all in Ankara.

An additional result of the archaeology program in Turkey has been an internationally recognized series of illustrated publications on the sites excavated along the pipeline. The Smithsonian Institution’s AGT project website has posted the original Turkish excavation site reports in both Turkic and English, and will post the Azeri and Georgian reports as they become available.

As they wind their way through Azerbaijan, Georgia, and Turkey, the pipelines stand as symbols of a more prosperous and integrated future for the South Caucasus and eastern Anatolia. But the planning and construction of the pipelines have also had a major impact on understanding the past of the region, which has long been recognized as a heartland of ancient history. The cultural heritage component of the BTC and SCP pipelines project continues to fill, gaps in our knowledge of the civilizations that occupied these ancient lands. The project will have a lasting impact on archaeological science and institutions in the host countries. It will surely continue to encourage cooperation in understanding and appreciating this region’s common heritage that is such an important part of the shared heritage of people everywhere.

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Site Reports

Turkey

The Turkish site Ziyaretsuyu, as seen from atop a nearby hill. When archaeologically significant sites such as this one were discovered, the pipeline route was diverted to minimize impacts on the sites.

Akmezar — kp 429

Görür, Muhammet; Ekmen, Hamza. 2005. Akmezer:
A Hellenistic and Medieval Settlement in Cayirli. Ankara: Gazi University Research Center for Archaeology.

Şenyurt, S.Yücel; Akçay, Atakan; Kamiş, Yalçin. 2005. Yüceören:
A Hellenistic and Roman Necropolis in Eastern Kilikia. Ankara: Gazi University Research Center for Archaeology.

English

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Türkçe

ziyaretsuyu — kp 714

Ortaç, Meral. 2005. Ziyaretsuyu:
A Hellenistic Settlement in Upper Halys Valley. Ankara: Gazi University Research Center for Archaeology.

English

Batonishvili, Vakhushti. 1973. "Description of the Kingdom of Georgia." Kartlis Tskhovreba. IV, Tbilisi, p. 42.

Berdznishvili, M. 1979. 12th Century Georgian Historical Sources. Tbilisi, p. 60. (in Georgian)

Chkhartishvili, M. 1969. About the History of Glass Production in Middle Ages Rustavi. I, Tbilisi, p. 145. (in Georgian)

Chkhartishvili, M. 1964. "A Peculiar Type of Rustavi Middle Ages Unglazed Ceramics." Matsne. No 5, p. 166.

Chilashvili, L. 1975. Old Gavazi. Tbilisi, p. 21-23. (in Georgian)

Japaridze, V. 1956. Ceramic Production in Georgia from Tenth to Thirteenth Centuries. Tbilisi, p.17. (in Georgian)

Ramishvili, R. 1970. Archaeological Monuments of Iori Valley, I: Sioni. Tbilisi, p. 93. (in Georgian)

Ramishvili, R. 1974. Iaghsari Ancient Settlement and the Mlasheebi Gori Wine-cellar, II. Tbilisi, p. 140.

Rcheulishvili, G. 1990. Medieval Archaeological Monuments of Pshavis Aragvi Gorge. Tbilisi. (in Georgian)

Rcheulishvili, G. 1981. "Archeological Investigation at Khertvisi Tower." Zhinvali Expedition. Tbilisi. (in Georgian)

Rcheulishvili, G. 1977. "Wine-presser of Aragvi Gorge." Archeological Investigations. Tbilisi. (in Georgian)

‍Atskuri Winery site report:
Licheli, Vakhtang ; Rcheulishvili, Giorgi; Kasradze, Merab; Rusishvili, R.; Kalandadze, Nino; Papuashvili, Nana; Kazakhishvili, L.; Gobejishvili, Gela. 2007.
‍Archaeological Investigation at Site IV- 266/320, KP211/212, Atskuri Village, Akhaltsikhe Region. Tbilisi, Otar Lordkipanidze Centre of Archaeology of the Georgian National Museum.

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Gazi University Research Center for Archaeology (GÜ-ARÇED) - Dr. Meral Ortaç

Director of the Sivas Museum - Süheyla Demirci

Sivas Museum - Mehmet Alkan

Archaeologists - Mahmut Polat, Gökhan Yıldız, Bedriye Koçak, Fetullah Yurttaş, Semih İstanbulluoğlu, Müge Küçük

Restoration - Sezen Bozkır & Emrah Karakurum

‍Architectural Drawings - Resul İbiş, Hamza Ekmen, Yunus Ekim, Atakan Akçay

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Akmezar — kp 429

Büyükardıç — kp 270

Güllüdere — kp 354

KAYRANLIKGÖZÜ — kp 922

minnetpinari — kp 986

sazpegler — kp 040

tasmasor — kp 299

tetikom — kp 292

Yüceören — kp 1069

ziyaretsuyu — kp 714

Bibliography

akmezar — kp 429

Büyükardıç — kp 270

Güllüdere — kp 354

KAYRANLIKGÖZÜ — kp 922

minnetpinari — kp 986

sazpegler — kp 040

tasmasor — 299

tetikom — kp 292

Yüceören — kp 1096

ziyaretsuyu — kp 714

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Cultural History

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Bibliography

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