Site Overview

Georgia

This necklace of bone and ivory was one of several found at the Eli Baba site.

Here is an example of a stone-lined box tomb from Klde, Georgia.

Ninety burials were identified and excavated at Saphar-Kharaba.

KLDE

The Klde settlement is situated on a terraced slope at the confluence of the Mtkvari and Potskhovai Rivers near the Turkish border in southwestern Georgia, along a major trade route that once linked the South Caucasus and eastern Anatolia. The site, encompassing a large multi-layer settlement and a cemetery, extends over 3,486 square meters and includes structures, graves, and storage pits. The excavations yielded excellent and extensive cultural material from the first millennium AD. The settlement appears to have been destroyed by fire and rebuilt several times. The last fire in the 7th century AD, possibly during the campaign of Byzantine Emperor Flavius Heraclius or during an Arab invasion, led to the abandonment of the site. The structures excavated during the pipeline project appear to have been domestic and were constructed from stone with tile roofs. All the dwellings possessed hearths for cooking, generally located either in the center or corner of the structure. The settlement’s layout leads archaeologists to believe that the structures also had a defensive purpose. Several stone sling bullets of different shapes and sizes may have been a means of defense against attackers.

Interment at some of the burial sites at Klde, which were concentrated in three separate areas, occurred in stone-lined pit graves, some of them edged with stone, while others were in wine jars. Many of the skeletons were lying on their backs, but others were on their sides in crouched positions. These differences mean the burials took place in at least three cultural periods and may reflect broad religious and other cultural changes overtime. Indeed, in the region under the Kartli (Iberia) Kingdom, differences between pre-Christian and Christian funerary cultures shed light on the shift to Christianity, with some graves manifesting both Christian and pre-Christian funerary traditions.

A particularly interesting find at the Klde site, dating to the 3rd-4th centuries AD, is a platform that contained 15 ritual vessels along with human bones. However, a clay altar in a corner suggests that the site was a place of cult worship rather than a burial site. The altar bears both Roman and Persian reliefs. The right hand of one figure is raised in a way similar to a gesture of adoration of kings and gods found in the Parthian artistic tradition. Burned areas on the altar, along with the decorative motifs, suggest traditions associated with Zoroastrian altars.

The site contained other interesting artifacts, such as a Roman lamp and a Parthian silver drachma (coin) of King Gotarzes I. The latter suggests that the Kartli (Iberian) Kingdom was actively involved in Roman-Parthian political and economic relationships connected with the Silk Road. A small fragment of red terracotta with animal figures—some standing, others in flight—was among the finds at this site. Finally, three glass intaglios (made of glass or jewels, with carved decorations) probably date to the second half of the 1st century AD, judging by their shapes and styles. All were similar, suggesting they may have been produced in the same workshop.

Orchosani

The archaeological site near the Orchosani village, located in the Akhaltsikhe region of southern Georgia (historically referred to as Samtskhe),is an excellent example of one of Georgia’s longest continuously inhabited sites. It seems to have been in use since the Lower Palaeolithic Auchelian period. Surface finds include tools made of andesite and basalt (hand axes, scrapers and flakes). Its history spans from at least the Early Bronze Age (perhaps as early as the 4th millennium BC) right up to the early 17th century AD, when the settlement suffered a violent end. Only three structures remain: one from the Bronze Age Kura-Araxes culture, and two from the Medieval Period. Aerial views reveal a large fortified wall around the village dating to the Early Medieval Period.

The 4th-3rd millennium BC was a vibrant time at the Orchosani settlement, which seems to have gone through three distinct cultural phases. The first, that of an early agricultural society, left behind only fragments of pottery, black or grey in color, similar to vessel types discovered at cave settlements in western Georgia. The Kura-Araxes culture came next, around 3,500 BC, with its distinct mud brick homes, elaborately polished black exterior and red interior pottery, and blend of agriculture and pastoralism. Orchosani yielded many artifacts in the Kura-Araxes style, including an anthropomorphic terracotta figurine. Little is known of the third culture to inhabit the site, the Bedeni. Jewelry and other metallic objects from this and earlier periods of the Bronze Age were probably imported from Anatolia, as evidenced bya bronze mattock that with a higher ratio of nickel than is found in Georgia.

Although the Orchosani cemetery produced few artifacts, the surrounding settlement yielded objects spanning many time periods. The most stunning were the large 500-600 liter wine storage jars known as pithoi (a Greek term describing large storage jars of a particular shape) dating to the 12th century AD. Stone, metal, and bone objects that served a variety of purposes, from culinary to military, were also recovered. Religious art from many eras was well-represented in the form of statuettes, inscriptions, and jewelry.

The impressive materials discovered at this site are all the more remarkable considering that Orchosani was completely destroyed twice. The first time was in the 10th century AD, most likely during the Seljuk Turk invasions of Georgia. Orchosani was again destroyed in the 17th century AD during the Ottoman expansion of the area, causing its final demise.

Saphar-kharaba

Archaeologists found more than 100 burial chambers encircled by basalt at the Saphar-Kharaba necropolis in the historic region of Trialeti (Tsalka District) of southern Georgia. Analysis suggests that the site was used in the 15th-mid-14th centuries BC. With only a few exceptions, the rectangular graves were uniform. Each contained skeletons in crouched positions oriented north to south, a pattern that indicates well-established funerary practices. The graves also contained several distinctive artifacts. For example, a cylindrical seal depicting a figure kneeling at an altar with a rod in its hand is a common motif of the Mittani or Hurrian art that was widespread in the Levant and Mesopotamia. Other objects include bronze daggers and surgical scalpels of a type not common elsewhere in the Caucasus.

One of the graves contained a poorly preserved wooden cart with the remains of an axle, wheel, and yoke. Two clay vessels were positioned on what remained of the cart’s bed. Under these vessels, human remains were found. Unfortunately, archaeologists did not discover this grave until after the pipeline construction had disturbed much of the contents, making it difficult to reconstruct this particular burial.

A skeleton of a man believed to have been 40-50-years-old has particular significance because samples of fabric were attached to it that provided clues to the type of fabrics produced in Georgia during this period. The samples were linen, cotton, and wool dyed with pigments that at the time could only have been extracted from mollusks along the Mediterranean coast. Because the raw dye was highly perishable, these textiles must have been produced and dyed near the Mediterranean before they were imported into the Caucasus. This suggests connections between the South Caucasus and surrounding regions, and perhaps the presence of early trade networks.

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Cultural History

Georgia

Tbilisi, a city of roughly one and a half million people, is the capital and largest city of Georgia, gracing the banks of the Mtkyvari (Kura) River in the eastern part of the country.

Pot with braided handle found at Klde, Georgia.

The inspiring Jvari Church sits atop a ridge overlooking Mtskheta, the ancient capital of Georgia; the remains of the timeworn town are dated earlier than 1000 BC. (Image courtesy of the Embassy of the Republic of Georgia)

Paleolithic, Epipaleolithic, & Eneolithic Ages
1.8 Million - 3000 B.C.

Seven graves discovered within close proximity were found at Tiselis Seri Cemetery.

The native name for the country of Georgia is Sakartvelo, named after the ancient Georgian tribe Kartli, which played the central role in the long process of ethnogenesis of the Georgian nation. The territory of modern-day Georgia has been inhabited since the Paleolithic Age. The earliest remains of human ancestors outside of Africa were unearthed at the Dmanisi archaeological site, which dates from approximately 1.8 million years ago. The site has yielded the remains of at least five pre-human hominids, and examples of some of the earliest tools associated with human ancestors. Later prehistoric remains (Paleolithic, Mesolithic, and Neolithic) have been discovered in numerous caves and open-air sites in Georgia. No sites from these periods were, however, found along the pipeline route in Georgia, even though surface findings indicated that there should be Stone Age or other pre-Chalcolithic sites in the area.

The early agricultural culture of the Caucasus developed during the 6th millennium BC, and by the second half of the 4th millennium BC, it had evolved into the Kura-Araxes culture that extended across the Caucasus, northern Iran, and eastern Anatolia.

Sketch showing the original construction of tomb grave which contained single pot accompanying the deceased at Tiselis Seri.

The AGT Pipelines Archaeological Program involved excavations at several archaeological sites from the Chalcolithic/Eneolithic and the Early Bronze Age periods along the pipeline route in Georgia. One of these, Nachivchavebi, located in the Tetritskaro District and believed to date from approximately 3,700 to 3,200 BC, contained artifacts from both the early agricultural and Kura-Araxes cultures. The excavations revealed storage pits and several burial sites. The artifacts, including ceramics and obsidian and bone tools, suggest that the population was mainly occupied with agriculture, stock-breeding, and small-scale handicrafts. The burial sites have contributed to understanding the evolution of burial practices in the Chalcolithic and Early Bronze Ages.

Ethnobotanical remains suggest that crop cultivation, horticulture, and wine production were well-developed by that time and that barley, hazelnut, chestnut, millet, mushrooms, grapes, buckwheat, and common wheat were likely foodstuffs. Faunal materials from wild species (horses, boars, noble deer, and elk) and domestic animals (goats, cows, oxen, and sheep) point to a combination of animal husbandry and hunting.

The Tiselis Seri settlement and cemetery in the Borjomi District provide valuable data about the next stage of development of the Kura-Araxes culture. The site contains a village and a cemetery from the second quarter of the 3rd millennium BC. The most important artifacts from the excavations here are pottery. The vessels are handmade, not wheel-thrown, and the larger ones are decorated with relief spirals or other curvilinear motifs. The site also yielded fibers of wool and flax, and the presence of multi-colored threads indicates that weaving was practiced. There is evidence of connections to northeastern Anatolia during the time the site was active.

Bronze & Iron Ages
3000 - 600 B.C.

Early Bronze Age societies seemed to have been relatively stable socially and economically. In the middle of the 3rd millennium BC the Culture of Early Bronze Age Kurgans developed in the Eastern Caucasus. It co-existed with the later stage of the Kura-Araxes culture in the Southern Caucasus and was situated between the Kura (Mtkvari) and Araxes rivers. Both cemeteries and settlements have been uncovered in this area. Typically, houses were single story, mud and stone brick that were reinforced with wood frames. The primary new element of this culture was a distinctive burial ritual: the deceased were buried in kurgans, graves defined by stone or soil mounds; in some cases, the kurgans exceeded 100 meters in diameter and 8-10 meters in height. The Culture of Early Kurgans persisted through the end of the 3rd millennium BC. The Kura- Araxes culture also characterized with special ceramic decorative traits and the bronze smelting technology in the mid-fourth millennium BC.

Without doing harm to the artifacts found along the pipeline, archeologists used white caulk to recreate broken pots. All restorations must be reversible so that the artifacts can be returned to the original state in which they were found should further study be required. This pot from Tkemlara demonstrates the technique.

Two kurgans, both dated to the mid-3rd millennium BC, were excavated in different parts of Georgia— Tori and Kvemo Kartli—during the pipelines project. The Tori site, known as the Kodiani Kurgan, is located on a ridge dividing two drainages of the Kodiana Mountain in the Borjomi district. A rock filled mound measuring 14 meters in diameter with a pit (burial chamber) defines the kurgan at this site. Fragments of the burned human remains of a woman of about 50 in the burial chamber suggest that the deceased was cremated. The items buried with her included pots with black polished surfaces, one of which was decorated with incised and grooved ornaments. Generating the most interest, however, was evidence of apiculture (honey making) in the burial’s ceramic vessels. Previously, the earliest archaeological evidence of apiculture was found in Asia Minor and Egypt, but the Tori site now appears to represent one of the earliest honey making locations.

The Tremlara Kurgan was found at the Kvemo Kartli site in the Tetritskaro district. It lies on the slope of the Bedeni Mountain and is characterized by a circular, rock- and soil-filled mounds 23m in diameter that encompassed two human graves (both 3rd millennium BC). The first grave, which did not have human remains inside of it, occupies a main central chamber cut in the bedrock and filled with stones, and contained a polished stone axe, bronze dagger, several small pots, and carbonized fragments of four wooden chariot wheels. The second grave is cut into the northwest side of the main chamber, and contained the remains of a woman. Both graves date to the mid-3rd millennium BC.

8th to 7th century storage pits were found dug into the floor of the remains of much older dwellings from the Jinisi site. The stone walls date from the 18th to 17th century.

The Middle Bronze Age corresponds to Trialeti Culture (2000-1500 BC) in Georgia. The culture is named for the Trialeti Plateau, the area of southcentral Georgia traversed by the pipeline. The culture is best known for large and elaborate tombs and kurgans and cobbled access roads. These kurgans are famous for their brilliant grave goods that contain ceramic and bronze objects, which include fine jewelry.

Although these elaborate burial rituals suggest a complex social structure, almost nothing is known about the domestic life of Trialeti people because to date very few examples of Trialeti settlements have been found.

During the pipeline construction, a settlement from the Middle Bronze Age was excavated in the historical province of Georgia Trialeti, Tsalka District, on the plain north of Jinisi village, on the left bank of Gumbatistskali River. The Jinisi settlement consisted of two construction layers. Some of the earliest artifacts also came from the Mousterian or Middle Paleolithic.

The most important discoveries, however, were the houses and artifacts from the Middle Bronze Age. Four houses dating back to the end of the Middle Bronze Age featured a semi-dugout design. Stone walls were built in single-row bond masonry, and the floors were leveled with clay. Stone bases that fixed the wooden columns were situated in front of the walls and at the center of the interior. The columns supported flat roofs, and each house contained an oven and a hearth. The construction technique was similar to that used in the burial chambers of kurgans of the Trialeti Culture. The pottery discovered on the floors of the houses was black-burnished and ornamented with imprinted triangles, again typical of the pottery found in kurgans of the Trialeti Culture.

Jinisi is the first settlement where this type of pottery has been uncovered. Other artifacts found at the site—a variety of querns, mortars, chopping tools—along with the results of pollen studies indicate the advanced development of agricultural crop production in the 18th-17th centuries BC, with wheat and rye the major crops. Bones of wild animals discovered on the floors of the houses demonstrate the importance of hunting and well-developed experience with farm animals, including horse breeding.

These necklaces are made of carnelian and glass paste beads. The white and green ones, called domino-like beads, are characteristic of the 7th-6th century BC. All were found at the Eli Baba Cemetery near Tsalka, Georgia on the necks or hands of human remains. Because the graves had previously been looted, the individual beads had been displaced, so it was impossible to identify which objects were parts of necklaces and which of bracelets.

The Late Bronze Age in Georgia saw the start of the historical distinction between eastern and western Georgia. Assyrian and then Urartian written sources contain the first references to proto-Georgian tribes and states. The proto- Georgian state of Diauehi (Diauhi or Diaokhi) was formed in the 12th century BC at the sources of the Chorokhi and Euphrates Rivers. It is first identified with the state of Daiaeni and with an inscription dating from Assyrian King Tiglath-Pileser I’s third year (1118 BC). After centuries of battling for independence from the Assyrians, in the first half of the 8th century BC Urartu annexed a large part of Diauehi. Extremely weakened by these wars, in the mid 8th century BC Diauehi was finally destroyed by another proto-Georgian kingdom, Kulkha (Colchis in Greek sources). Colchis was formed in the 13th century BC on the eastern shore of the Black Sea. According to Greek mythology, it was a wealthy kingdom situated in the mysterious periphery of the heroic world. Here, in the sacred grove of the war god Ares, King Aeetes hung the Golden Fleece until Jason and the Argonauts seized it. Colchis was also the land where Zeus punished the mythological Prometheus for revealing the secret of fire to humanity by chaining him to a mountain. Colchis disintegrated after the invasion of Cimmerians and Scythians in the last quarter of the 8th century BC.

There are no written sources about the territory of eastern Georgia in the Late Bronze-Early Iron Age. However, several rich archaeological sites provide information about the cultural and political situation. One of the most interesting sites of the Late Bronze Age, the Saphar-Kharaba cemetery (discussed more extensively in the "Site Overviews" section), was excavated as a result of the pipeline construction.

Antique (Classical) Period
600 B.C. - 400 A.D.

This particular object, the head of a bull made of clay mixed with straw, was found in one of the structures of the Ktsia Valley settlement dating from the 6th-4th centuries BC. The bull is believed to have been a holy animal associated with fertility and the moon. Depictions of the bull are found at sites of various periods.

Toward the mid-6th century BC, the tribes living in southern Colchis were incorporated into the 19th Satrapy of Persia. The advanced economy and favorable geographic and natural conditions of the area attracted Greeks, who colonized the Colchian coast, establishing trading posts at Phasis, Guuenos, Dioscurias, and Pitius during the 6th-5th centuries BC. According to archaeological discoveries, Colchis emerged as an economically and culturally advanced state during this period, with evidence of key elements of a strong civilization: civic structure (territorial-administrative divisions) and central state authority (the royal dynasty of the Aeetids); intensive urban life; a complex taxation system; and cultural manifestations, including architecture. The eastern part of Georgia is believed to have been partially under the Achaemenid Empire. During this period various eastern Georgian tribes struggled for leadership, with the Kartlian tribes eventually prevailing. At the end of the 4th century BC the Kartli (Iberia) Kingdom, the first eastern Georgian state, was founded.

One of the important Early Antique Period sites excavated during the pipeline construction is Ktsia Valley, located in the Borjomi District. The site, which sits on a bank of the Ktsia River at 2,000 meters above sea level, contains older layers dating from the Kura-Araxes culture, as well as the remains of a much larger settlement dating from the 6th-4th centuries BC.

Most of the structures at the site were built of flat stones fixed with clay, with evidence of structures that apparently supported flat roofs. An altar made of clay mixed with straw, and the head of a bull (an animal thought to have had ritual significance and associated with fertility and the moon) made of the same material, were also found. Generally, pottery was wheel-thrown; handmade items were rare. Ornaments were either engraved or embossed. One fragment of a polished red ceramic vessel seems to have been imported. Agricultural activity was somewhat restricted, perhaps because of the elevation, although cattle-breeding was important. Barley and oats (species well-adapted to the local environment) were cultivated. During the final stages of the settlement’s existence, it was destroyed by fire several times, possibly as a result of conquests.

This well-preserved wooden comb (on the right) from Skhalta, Georgia, is a rare find for a Hellenistic site. Curly locks were the style of both women and men, and combs were created to secure hair accessories made of flowers, myrtle, and ivy, often in the shape of wreaths. The ear cleaner (left) is a rare example of one made from bone; most ear cleaners found from the Hellenistic period were made of bronze.

The Hellenistic period is usually said to extend from the accession of Alexander the Great to the throne of Macedonia in 336 BC to the death of Cleopatra VII of Egypt in 30 BC. During the late 4th-early 3rd centuries BC, the eastern Georgian Kartli Kingdom emerged as a powerful force and created a single Georgian civilization. According to written sources from medieval Georgia, Parnavaz, the representative of the aristocracy in Mtskheta, the ancient capital of Georgia, defeated his rival Azo and declared himself King of Kartli. Parnavaz created a system of military, fiscal, and administrative units, subdividing the country into several counties, called saeristavos, which paid tributes to the king. Parnavaz also established a single national cult around the supreme deity, Armazi, who personified the supreme ruler of the state. During the 3rd century BC, the Kartli (Iberia) Kingdom grew in power and expanded to the west. Incessant warfare characterized the following two centuries, with the kingdom forced to defend itself against numerous invasions. When the close association between Armenia and Pontus (currently located in north Turkey) resulted in an invasion by Pompey in 66-65 BC, King Artag of Kartli was forced to become a subordinate ally of Rome.

Numerous important sites in Georgia dating from this time have been excavated, including cities, temples, and cemeteries. However, until the pipeline project, no settlements had been found in this location. The project conducted the excavation at Skhalta, which included both a settlement and a cemetery. The structures there were quadrangular, built of stone and possibly mud brick. The population mostly engaged in animal husbandry, along with gardening, viticulture, and cultivation of wheat and flax.

Sixty graves were excavated at Skhalta, including square stone tombs and pit burials. There were bones of sacrificial sheep and goats on the surface of the graves, and human remains inside them.

These three tools from Skhalta are made of iron. The battle axe (left) and the spear head (middle)were placed next to the face or arms of deceased male warriors. The rarely found adze (right) was used to shape and trim wood and may have belonged to a woodworker.

In the first century AD the Kartli (Iberia) Kingdom was under the cultural influence of Rome and the Parthian Empires, later replaced by the Sassanian Empire in 226 AD. Evidence of close political and cultural relationships between Rome and Kartli are well represented on a noteworthy stone inscription discovered at Mtskheta, which notes that the Roman Emperor Vespasian supported Mithridates, “the friend of the Caesars” and king “of the Roman-loving Iberians,” in reconstructing the fortification of Mtskheta in 75 AD. During this period, a trade road running from India to Greece crossed the territory of Kartli. Kartli controlled the most important passes of the Central Caucasus, which meant it protected the central Asian domains of Rome from the invasion of aggressive nomadic tribes from the northern Caucasus. Consequently, the Romans profited from a strengthening of Kartli. The importance of the Kartli Kingdom to Rome grew in the 2nd century. During the reign of the Roman Emperor Antoninus Pius in the 2nd quarter of the 2nd century AD, King Pharsman II of Kartli visited Rome, where a statue was erected in his honor.

During the following two centuries, the new Persian Empire led by the Sassanid dynasty made control over the South Caucasus a main objective of its expansion. Kartli stood firmly with Rome and opposed the Persian Empire. An impressive expression of its Roman orientation was the declaration of Christianity as the state religion. During the 1st century AD, the Apostle Saint Andrew brought Christianity into Georgia, a small part of the population adopted it. Finally, in 326 AD, during the reign of King Mirian, a Cappadocian woman, Saint Nino converted Kartli to that religion. Many scholars argue that the Georgian alphabet was created in the 4th or 5th century AD to make religious scripture more accessible to Georgians. The oldest examples of Georgian writing are from two 5th century AD inscriptions, one found in a church in Bethlehem, and the second in the church of Bolnisi Sioni, currently in the southern part of Georgia. Although Georgian historical tradition attributed the invention of the Georgian alphabet to Parnavaz I of Kartli in the 3rd century BC, there is no clear evidence of it prior to these inscriptions from the 5th century AD. [1]

[1] The writing of the Georgian language has progressed through three distinct forms; Asomtavruli, Nuskhuri, and Mkhedruli. At times these graphic forms were used together and shared some of the same letters. The most recent alphabet, Mkhedruli, contains more letters than the two earlier versions, although those extra letters are no longer needed for writing modern Georgian.

Medieval Period
400 - 1300 A.D.

Georgia’s medieval culture was greatly influenced by eastern Christianity and the Georgian Orthodox Apostolic Church, which promoted and often sponsored the creation of many works of religious devotion. During the 5th century AD, Peter the Iberian (or Peter of Iberia), a Georgian Orthodox saint and prominent figure in early Christianity, founded Bethlehem, the first Georgian monastery outside Georgia. During this period, Sassanian kings conquered the neighboring countries and appointed a viceroy in Kartli who promoted the teachings of Zoroaster. However, efforts to convert the common Georgian people were generally unsuccessful.

The Davit Gareji Monastery in East Georgia was founded in the 6th century by Saint Davit (David), who once lived in a cave at this location. The complex grew over the centuries following his death and remains in use today. (Image courtesy of the Embassy of the Republic of Georgia)

In the second half of the 5th century AD, King Vakhtang Gorgasali successfully unified the people of the Transcaucasus against the Sassanid dynasty. He is associated with the founding of Tbilisi. In the early 6th century AD, Vakhtang Gorgasali was killed in the struggle against the Persians; by the end of the century Sassanian kings abolished the monarchy in Kartli, making it a Persian province. From the beginning of the 7th century AD, Byzantium predominated in western and eastern Georgia, until the Arabs invaded the Caucasus. Arab invaders reached Kartli in the mid-7th century AD and forced its prince to recognize the Caliph as his suzerain. At the beginning of the 9th century AD, Prince Ashot Bagrationi, the first of a new, local Bagrationi Dynasty, established himself as hereditary Prince of Iberia. [1]

Throughout the Early Medieval Period, Georgian Christian literature and architecture, mainly religious, flourished. Commendable examples of the cultural life of Georgia in this period are the Holy Cross Church in Mtskheta (6th century AD), the monastic complex of Davit Gareji, and the oldest surviving work of Georgian literature, “The Passion of Saint Shushanik” by Jakob Tsurtaveli, written between 476 and 483. In the 9th century AD, a prominent Georgian ecclesiastic, St. Grigol Khanzteli (Gregory of Khandzta) founded numerous monastic communities in Tao-Klarjeti in southwest Georgia. These monasteries and their scriptoria functioned as centers of knowledge for centuries and played an important role in the formation of the Georgian state.

In the late 10th and early 11th centuries AD, King Bagrat III brought the various principalities of Georgia together to form a united Georgian state. In 1121, near Didgori, King David IV defeated the coalition of Seljuk Turk troops. King David, often referred to as David the Builder, spared no effort to strengthen the country. He reformed the army, regenerated the economy, altered the activities of the church, and strengthened the governmental system. When he died in 1125, he left Georgia as a strong regional power.

The Svetitskhoveli (“Living Pillar”) Cathedral in Mtskheta, Georgia, was built in the 11th century AD on the site of an earlier church. Legend holds that Jesus’s robe was buried at this site. (Image courtesy of the Embassy of the Republic of Georgia)

The most glorious sovereign of Georgia was Queen Tamar (1184-1213), and in Georgia the period from the 12th-13th centuries AD is known as “The Golden Age.” The country’s military political strength relied on a diverse economy. The main centers of trade and handicraft were cities, including Tbilisi, where approximately 100,000 people lived at the beginning of the 13th century. Centers of education, including the celebrated Gelati and Ikalto monasteries, created academies that taught philosophy, astronomy, mathematics, rhetoric, and music. A collection of Georgian historical essays entitled Kartlis Tskhovreba, created in the 12th century, chronicles the lives of authors from the 8th-12th centuries AD and became the authoritative description of the history of Georgia until the time when new essays were added to the original volume. One masterpiece of Georgian medieval literature is the romantic epic by Shota Rustaveli called “Knight in the Panther’s Skin.” Completed at the end of the 12th century, Rustaveli’s poem is imbued with humanistic thoughts and feelings.

[1] The Bagrationi Dynasty ruled Georgia until the 19th century AD, when the Russian Empire annexed Georgia.

Recent Georgia
1200 - 1800 A.D.

Following the invasion of Mongols in the middle of the 13th century AD, the Georgian Kingdom began to disintegrate, coming under the domination of the Mongols by 1240. Although King Giorgi V reunified the kingdom in the 14th century, his success was short-lived. During the subsequent century, the country suffered economic and political decline. In the end of the 14th century and in the beginning of the 15th centuries with ruthless violence, the Tatars of Tamerlane invaded Georgia eight times. In the 1460s the kingdom fractured into several states: the Kingdom of Kartli, the Kingdom of Imereti, Kingdom of Kakheti and the Principality of Samtskhe. In the 16th century Georgia became a battleground between the Ottoman and Safavid Empires. Prey to a succession of invaders at the turn of the 17th century, the population of Tbilisi fell to no more than 10,000 people. By the 17th century, both eastern and western Georgia had sunk into poverty as the result of the constant warfare, which mainly involved battles for supremacy between the Ottoman and Safavid Empires. Georgian culture likewise suffered in the 15th-17th centuries. Nevertheless, there were distinguished examples of wall paintings, miniatures, embroidery, literature, and scientific discovery. It was against this backdrop that Georgian kings sought an ally in Russia, which annexed the Georgian states in the 19th century.

Excavations for the SCP project produced this inscribed cross from the Atskuri winery. Archaeologists believe the inscription stands for Tsminda and Giorgi (Saint George)

Wine production and consumption have held an important place in Georgian culture and history for centuries. Written sources and archaeological material confirm that viticulture was an integral part of life during the Classical Period, at which time the god of the vine, Dionysus, was a popular focus of worship. The myth of Dionysus relates that he travelled to strange lands where he taught men the culture of wine. The excavations uncovered jars dating to the 6th millennium BC at Shulaveri in southeastern Georgia, with a residue of wine still present on their inner surfaces. These jars provide some of the earliest evidence of the consumption of wine in ancient societies. Grape pips dating from the 7th-5th millennia BC found at the same site also suggest the very early cultivation of vineyards in ancient Georgia. The tradition of viniculture continued even during the continuing clashes of armies during this period in Georgia. Wineries were some of the most interesting archaeological sites of the Medieval Period to be excavated along the pipeline route in Georgia. In the vicinity of the village of Atskuri in Samtskhe, where viticulture historically has been a major activity, archaeologists excavated seven wine cellars dating from the 10th-16th centuries AD. Their construction and elements are similar to those found today in Georgian villages.

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Capacity Building

Georgia

Georgian scholars, scientists, and preservationists had many of the same needs as their counterparts in Azerbaijan, but also some unique ones. For example, the project supported extensive architectural studies to minimize the impacts on standing monuments and furthered the restoration of specific historical structures on or near the pipeline route. The Georgian Cultural Heritage Protection Department played a large role in determining a route that would ensure that the most significant sites near the project right-of-way were avoided. Most efforts focused on planning protective measures for at-risk sites, and specific protection or mitigation measures were developed for each of them.

An excellent example is the approach taken to ensure conservation and preservation of the Tadzrisi Monastery complex. The complex consists of two churches standing side by side, St. George’s(a three-nave basilica) and St. Mary’s, as well as the ruins of a monastery building. The monastery was the most important ecclesiastic center in the 10th-15th centuries AD in Georgia; its origin is associated with eminent Georgian religious leaders in the Early Middle Ages. It was temporarily abandoned following an invasion by the Ottoman Turks in the 1550s. St. George’s Church is the most prominent remnant of the monastery and a pilgrimage site for Georgians to this day. Although the ruins of the Monastery are not directly on the pipeline route, BTC/SCP funded conservation and restoration of both churches and the monastery’s courtyard.

The result is an aesthetically pleasing and historically accurate site with two fully operational historic churches. In a letter of gratitude to BP, local residents wrote, “This was a sign of great respect towards Georgian cultural heritage…[which] strengthened our positive attitude towards pipeline construction.”

In addition to these preservation efforts, the project has supported two museum exhibitions of some of the exciting finds unearthed along the pipeline route. In 2005 the Janashia State Museum (now part of Georgian National Museum) hosted the “First Oil Celebration, ”where the Company presented an exhibition of outstanding archaeological finds. On July 2, 2009the Georgian National Museum, together with BP and its partners, inaugurated the exhibition, “Pipeline Construction and Archaeological Finds ”at the Samtskhe-Javakheti History Museum in Akhaltsikhe, in southern Georgia. The exhibition contains up to 800 artifacts from the Paleolithic to the Middle Ages that were unearthed during the pipeline construction. The museum itself was partially renovated for the occasion.

A view of excavation activities along the Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan (BTC) pipeline in Georgia.

Archaeologists from Georgia’s Center for Archaeological Studies review data gathered along the pipeline.

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Site Reports

Georgia

Restoring the domed roof of St. Mary’s Churchat Tadzrisi in Georgia involved replacing missing stones and securing loose ones.

Atskuri Winert — KP 211

Licheli, Vakhtang; Rcheulishvili, Giorgi; Kasradze, Merab; Rusishvili, R.; Kalandadze, Nino; Papuashvili, Nana; Kazakhishvili, L.; Gobejishvili, Gela. 2007.
‍Archaeological Investigation at Site IV- 266/320, KP211/212, Atskuri Village, Akhaltsikhe Region. Tbilisi, Otar Lordkipanidze Centre of Archaeology of the Georgian National Museum.

English

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Georgian

Chivchaci Gorge — Kp 087

Heritage Protection Department of Georgia. 2003.
‍Study of the Monuments within Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan Pipeline Route Corridor:
Phase III. Report. Tbilisi, Otar Lordkipanidze Centre of Archaeology of the Georgian National Museum.

English

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Georgian

Chorati — kp 087

Baramidze, M.; Pkhakadze. 2007.
‍Comprehensive Technical Report on Archaeological Investigations at Site IV-261, Chorati Village, Akhaltsikhe District, KP 241. Tbilisi, Otar Lordkipanidze Centre of Archaeology of the Georgian National Museum.

English

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Georgian

Eli baba — kp 116

Narimanashvili, Goderdzi. 2007.
‍Preliminary Report on Field Excavations of Tsalka – Trialeti Archaeological Expedition for the Season. 2003 on Eli-Baba (Sabechdavi) Cemetery. Tbilisi, Otar Lordkipanidze Centre of Archaeology of the Georgian National Museum.

ivlita — kp 231

Gambashidze, Irine; Mindiashvili, Giorgi. 2007.
‍Comprehensive Technical Report on Archaeological Investigations at Site IV-238 Ivlita, KP 231, Akhaltsikhe District. Tbilisi, Otar Lordkipanidze Centre of Archaeology of the Georgian National Museum.

English

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Georgian

klde — kp 225

Gambashidze, Irine; Mindiashvili, Giorgi. 2006.
Archaeological Excavations at the Klde Settlement and Cemetery, Report. Tbilisi, Otar Lordkipanidze Centre of Archaeology of the Georgian National Museum.

English

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Georgian

Orchosani — kp 249

Baramidze, Malkhaz; Jibladze, Leri; Todua, Temur; Orjonikidze, Alexander. 2007.
‍Comprehensive Technical Report on Archaeological Investigations at the Orchosani Site IV-323 KP 249. Tbilisi: Otar Lortkipanidze Archaeological Centre of the National Museum of Georgia.

English

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Georgian

Baramidze, M.; Jibladze, L.; Todua, T.; Orjonikidze, Al. 2006.
‍Orchosani Remnant of the Settlement and Necropolis. Tbilisi.

Baramidze, M.; Pkhakadze, G. 2004.
‍Report of Akhaltsikhe Archaeological Works of 2003 (September-October). Tbilisi: Georgian Academy of Sciences.

Sakire fortress — kp 199

Gambashidze, Irine; Gogochuri, Giorgi. 2007.
‍Archaeological Investigations at Site IV-338, KP199, Sakire Village, Borjomi District. Tbilisi, Otar Lordkipanidze Centre of Archaeology of the Georgian National Museum.

English

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Georgian

samshvilde — kp 077

Mirtskhulava, Guram; Kvirkvelia, Guram; Chikovani, Guram; Gambashidze, Civi. 2007.
‍Comprehensive Technical Report of Archaeological Investigations at Site IV-209 Samshvilde, KP 77+60, Tetritskaro District, Kvemo Kartli Region bilisi, Otar Lordkipanidze Centre of Archaeology of the Georgian National Museum.

English

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Georgian

saphar-kharaba — kp 120

Narimanishvili, Goderdzi; Amiranashvili, Juansher; Davlianidze, Revaz; Murvanidze, Bidzina; Shanshashvili, Nino; Kvachadze, Marine. 2003. Report on Tsalka-Trialeti Archaeological Expedition Field Activities in September-November 2003. Tbilisi, Otar Lordkipanidze Centre of Archaeology of the Georgian National Museum.

English

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Georgian

Skhalta — kp 080

Shatberashvili, Zebede; Nikolaishvili, Vakhtang; Shatberashvili, Vakhtang. 2007.
Archaeological Investigations at Site IV-260 Skhalta, KP 80 Tetritsqaro District, Kvemo Kartli Region. Tbilisi, Otar Lordkipanidze Centre of Archaeology of the Georgian National Museum.

English

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Georgian

tadzrisi — kp 201

Elizbarashvili, Irina; Bochoidze, Merab. 2005.
‍Conservation and Restoration of the Church of St George at Tadzrisi Monastery. Tbilisi, Georgian National Committee of the International Council of Monuments and Sites.

English

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Georgian

Erkomaishvili, Nino. 2008.
‍Tadzrisi Monastery Conservation Project.

tiselis seri — kp 203

Gogochuri, G. 2005.
‍Archaeological Excavations at KP 203 – Tiselis Seri Kura-Araxes Site, Report. Tbilisi, Otar Lordkipanidze Centre of Archaeology of the Georgian National Museum.

Gogochuri, George; Orjonikidze, Alexander. 2007.
‍Comprehensive Technical Report on Archaeological Investigations at Site IV-293 Tiselis Seri KP 203. Tbilisi, Otar Lordkipanidze Centre of Archaeology of the Georgian National Museum.

English

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Georgian

Close section

Bibliography

Georgia

atskuri winery — kp 211/212

Batonishvili, Vakhushti. 1973. "Description of the Kingdom of Georgia." Kartlis Tskhovreba. IV, Tbilisi, p. 42.

Berdznishvili, M. 1979. 12th Century Georgian Historical Sources. Tbilisi, p. 60. (in Georgian)

Chkhartishvili, M. 1969. About the History of Glass Production in Middle Ages Rustavi. I, Tbilisi, p. 145. (in Georgian)

Chkhartishvili, M. 1964. "A Peculiar Type of Rustavi Middle Ages Unglazed Ceramics." Matsne. No 5, p. 166.

Chilashvili, L. 1975. Old Gavazi. Tbilisi, p. 21-23. (in Georgian)

Japaridze, V. 1956. Ceramic Production in Georgia from Tenth to Thirteenth Centuries. Tbilisi, p.17. (in Georgian)

Ramishvili, R. 1970. Archaeological Monuments of Iori Valley, I: Sioni. Tbilisi, p. 93. (in Georgian)

Ramishvili, R. 1974. Iaghsari Ancient Settlement and the Mlasheebi Gori Wine-cellar, II. Tbilisi, p. 140.

Rcheulishvili, G. 1990. Medieval Archaeological Monuments of Pshavis Aragvi Gorge. Tbilisi. (in Georgian)

Rcheulishvili, G. 1981. "Archeological Investigation at Khertvisi Tower." Zhinvali Expedition. Tbilisi. (in Georgian)

Rcheulishvili, G. 1977. "Wine-presser of Aragvi Gorge." Archeological Investigations. Tbilisi. (in Georgian)

‍Atskuri Winery site report:
Licheli, Vakhtang ; Rcheulishvili, Giorgi; Kasradze, Merab; Rusishvili, R.; Kalandadze, Nino; Papuashvili, Nana; Kazakhishvili, L.; Gobejishvili, Gela. 2007.
‍Archaeological Investigation at Site IV- 266/320, KP211/212, Atskuri Village, Akhaltsikhe Region. Tbilisi, Otar Lordkipanidze Centre of Archaeology of the Georgian National Museum.

chivchavi gorge — kp 087

Bakhtadze, N. 2002. Kvemo Kartli villages in the Developed Medieval Centuries, Antiquities of Georgia. Tb., p. 33-46.

Berdzenishvili, D. 1979. Researches from the Historical Geography of Georgia, Kvemo Kartli. Tb.

Grdzelishvili, I. 1954. Tetritzkaro Remnant of the Villages, the News of the Academy of Science of Georgia. T. XIV, #5.

Gverdtsiteli, R. 1972. Some Methodological ideas about identification and Protection of the Old Remnant of the Villages and Dwelling Architecture, A Friend of the Monument. 29, Tb.Jorbenadze, B. 1982. Ertso-Tiai in the Medieval Period. Tb.

Mitsishvili, M. 1969. Glazed Pottery in Old Georgia IX-XIII c. Tb.Rcheulishvili, L. 1994. Old Remnant of the Settlements in Borjomi0Bakuriani Areas, Researches of the History of Georgian Art. Tb.

Tsitsishvili, I.; Japaridze, V. 1965. Georgian Pottery XI-XIII c. Tb.1979. Monuments of Material Culture According to the Historic-Archaeological Excavations in Tetritskaro, Selection: A Friend of a Monument. #50, Tb.

‍Chivchavi Gorge site report:
Heritage Protection Department of Georgia. 2003.
‍Study of the Monuments within Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan Pipeline Route Corridor: Phase III. Report. Tbilisi, Otar Lordkipanidze Centre of Archaeology of the Georgian National Museum.

‍Chairman of the Project - Merab Bochoidze

‍Archaeologist - Lali Akhalaia

‍Art specialists - Irine Elizbarashvili, Manana Suramelashvili, Tsitsino Chachkhunashvili

‍Architects - Lia Bokuchava, Eter Makhatelashvili, Giorgi Gugeshashvili

‍Topographer - Alexandre Tevzadze

‍Data processing - Tamaz Chkhaidze Report

Editing - Lali Churgulaia

Eli baba — Kp 116

Eli Baba site report:
Narimanashvili, Goderdzi. 2007.
‍Preliminary Report on Field Excavations of Tsalka – Trialeti Archaeological Expedition for the Season. 2003 on Eli-Baba (Sabechdavi) Cemetery. Tbilisi, Otar Lordkipanidze Centre of Archaeology of the Georgian National Museum.

‍Archaeologists - G. Marimanishvili (the head), Z. Makharadze(deputy), G. Mindiashvili (deputy), O. Japaridze, M. Baramidze, T. Chikovani, G. Dundua, G. Gamkrelidze, G. Kvirkvelia, K. Kalandadze, V. Nikolaishvili, N. Shanshashvili, R. Davlianidze, L. Chelidze.

klide — kp 225

Chilashvili, L. 1958. The City of Rustavi. Tbilisi. (in Georgian)

Chilashvili, L. 1964. Ancient Town Urbnisi. Tbilisi. (in Georgian)

Chubinashvili, G. 1940. Bolniskyi Cion (isledobanie po istorii gruzinskoy arkhitekturi) Sioni of Bolnisi/Investigation of history of Georgian architecture. Tbilisi: Metsniereba.

Ghirshman. 1962. Iran, Parthians and Sassanians. London: Thames & Hudson.

Machabeli, K. 1998. Kartuli Kvajvrebi/Georgian Cross-stones. Tblisi: University of Tbilisi.

Sinauridze. 1966. Agmosavlet sakartvelos adrefeodaluri khanis keramika/Early Medieval Eastern Georgian Ceramic. Tbilisi.

Klde site report:
‍Gambashidze, Irine; Mindiashvili, Giorgi. 2006.
Archaeological Excavations at the Klde Settlement and Cemetery, Report. Tbilisi, Otar Lordkipanidze Centre of Archaeology of the Georgian National Museum.

Orchosani — kp 249

Orchosani site reports:
‍Baramidze, Malkhaz; Jibladze, Leri; Todua, Temur; Orjonikidze, Alexander. 2007.
‍Comprehensive Technical Report on Archaeological Investigations at the Orchosani Site IV-323 KP 249. Tbilisi: Otar Lortkipanidze Archaeological Centre of the National Museum of Georgia.

Baramidze, M.; Jibladze, L.; Todua, T.; Orjonikidze, Al. 2006.
Orchosani Remnant of the Settlement and Necropolis. Tbilisi.

Baramidze, M.; Pkhakadze, G. 2004.
‍Report of Akhaltsikhe Archaeological Works of 2003 (September-October). Tbilisi: Georgian Academy of Sciences.

sakire fortress — kp 199

Berdzenishvili D. 1985. Essays from the Historical Geography of Georgia, Zemo Kartli. Tori, Javakheti, Tb.

Khoshtaria, D. 1986. X c Monastery Churches in Tadzrisi-Sakire area, Matsne #3 (series of history, archaeology, ethnography, and art history). Tb., pg. 135-155.

Orbeliani, Papuna. 1981. Kartli Stories. Tb.

‍Sakire Fortress site report:
Gambashidze, Irine; Gogochuri, Giorgi. 2007.
‍Archaeological Investigations at Site IV-338, KP199, Sakire Village, Borjomi District. Tbilisi, Otar Lordkipanidze Centre of Archaeology of the Georgian National Museum.

‍Chairman of the Project - Merab Bochoidze

‍Archaeologist - Lali Akhalaia

‍Art specialists - Irine Elizbarashvili, Manana Suramelashvili, Tsitsino Chachkhunashvili

‍Architects - Lia Bokuchava, Eter Makhatelashvili, Giorgi Gugeshashvili

‍Topographer - Alexandre Tevzadze

‍Data processing - Tamaz Chkhaidze

‍Report Editing - Lali Churgulaia

saphar-kharaba — kp 120

Gogadze, E. 1972. Trialeris korganuli kulturis periodizaciya da genezisi/The Periodization and Genesis of the Trialeti Culture. Tbilisi: Metsniereba.

Japaridze, O. 1969. Arqeologiuri gatkhrebi Trialetshi/Archaeological Excavations at Trialeti/ Archaeological Excavations at Trialeti. Tbilisi: Sabchota Saqartvelo.

Kavtaradze, G. L. 1981. Saqartvelos brinjaos xanis arqeologiuri kulturebis qronologia axali monacemebis mixedvit / Chronology of Bronze Age Georgian Archaeological Cultures. Tbilisi.

Kuftin, B. 1941. Archaeological excavation in Trialeti. Tbilisi: Academy of sciences of Georgia.

Kuftin, B. 1948. Archaeological excavation in Tsalka district in 1947. Tbilisi: Academy of sciences of Georgia. Pitskhelauri, K 1973. Agmosavlet sakartvelos tomta istoriis dziritadi problemebi (dz.ts. XV-VII ss) archeologiuri masalebis mikhedvit (in Georgian) / Main problems of history of Eastern Georgian tribes ( XV-VII centuries B.C.) based on archaeological materials. Tbilisi: Metsniereba.

Pitskhelauri, K. 1979. Eastern Georgia in the end of the Bronze Age. Tbilisi: Metsniereba.

Ramishvili, et al. 2004. Brinjaos Khanis archeologiuri Dzeglebi Tsagvshi/Bronze Age archaeological sites in Tsagvi. Works of Khashuri archaeological expedition. Tbilisi: Dziebani VII.

Sadradze. V. 2002. Mtskhetis da misi shemogarenis dv.ts. II-I atastsleulis pirveli naxevris archeologuri dzeglebi/II- First half of I millennium B.C. archaeological sites in Mtskheta and its environment. Tbilisi: Metsniereba.

‍Saphar-Kharaba site report:
Narimanishvili, Goderdzi; Amiranashvili, Juansher; Davlianidze, Revaz; Murvanidze, Bidzina; Shanshashvili, Nino; Kvachadze, Marine. 2003.
‍Report on Tsalka-Trialeti Archaeological Expedition Field Activities in September-November 2003. Tbilisi, Otar Lordkipanidze Centre of Archaeology of the Georgian National Museum.

Experts - I. Elizbarashvili, M. Suramelashvili, Sh. Melikidze

tadzrisi — kp 201

Agona, A. 1984. The Caucasian region in the early bronze age.

‍Chilashvili, L. 1975. Old Gavazi. Tb.

Khoshtaria, D. "X century Monastery churches in Tadzrisi-Sakire Area," Matsne. #3, the issue of history, archaeology, ethnography and art history.

Makalatia, S. 1957. Borjomi gorge. Tb.

Rcheulishvili, G. 1990. Pshavi Aragvi Gorge Archaeological Monuments. Tb.

‍Tadzrisi site report:
Elizbarashvili, Irina; Bochoidze, Merab.
‍Conservation and Restoration of the Church of St George at Tadzrisi Monastery.

Erkomaishvili, Nino. 2008.
‍Tadzrisi Monastery Conservation Project.

Heritage Protection Department of Georgia. 2003.
‍Study of the Monuments within Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan Pipeline Route Corridor: Phase III. Report. Tbilisi, Otar Lordkipanidze Centre of Archaeology of the Georgian National Museum.

tiselis seri — kp 203

Chubinishvili, T. 1963. Amiranis Gora. Tbilisi. (in Georgian)

Chubinishvili, T. 1965. Kura-Araxes Culture. Tbilisi. (in Georgian)

Javakhishvili, A.; Glonti, l. 1962. Urbnisi. I. Tbilisi. (in Georgian)

Japaridze, O. 1998. For Ethno-Cultural History of Georgian Tribes in the 3rd Millenium BC. Tbilisi. (in Georgian)

Kavtaradze, G. 1983. Chronology of Bronze Age Georgian Archaeological Cultures (in Georgian, with Russian and English summaries). Tbilisi.

Khachatrian, T. 1975. Ancient Culture of Shirak. Yerevan (in Russian)

Kikvidze, I. 1972. The Early Bronze Age Settlement of Khizaant Gora. Tbilisi. (in Georgian)

Munchaev, R. М. 1994. “Kura- Araxes Culture (Editors K.Kushnariova and V. Markovin), Bronze Age in Caucasus and Near East.” Early and Middle Bronze of Caucasus. 8-156, Moscow, (in Russian)

Orjonikidze, A. 1983. Samtskhe-Javakheti in Early Bronze Age. Tbilisi. (in Georgian)

Orjonikidze, A. 2004. Main Stages of Kura-Araxes Culture. Tbilisi. (in Georgian)

Sagona, A. 1984. The Caucasian region in the early bronze age.

‍Tiselis Seri site report:
Gogochuri, G. 2005.
‍Archaeological Excavations at KP 203 – Tiselis Seri Kura-Araxes Site, Report. Tbilisi, Otar Lordkipanidze Centre of Archaeology of the Georgian National Museum.

Gogochuri, George; Orjonikidze, Alexander. 2007.
‍Comprehensive Technical Report on Archaeological Investigations at Site IV-293 TiselisSeri KP 203. Tbilisi, Otar Lordkipanidze Centre of Archaeology of the Georgian National Museum.

Close section

Site Overview

Georgia

Cultural History

Georgia

Capacity Building

Georgia

Site
Reports

Georgia

Bibliography

Georgia

Site Overview

KLDE

Orchosani

Saphar-kharaba

Cultural History

Capacity Building

Site Reports

Atskuri Winert — KP 211

Chivchaci Gorge — Kp 087

Chorati — kp 087

Eli baba — kp 116

ivlita — kp 231

klde — kp 225

Orchosani — kp 249

Sakire fortress — kp 199

samshvilde — kp 077

saphar-kharaba — kp 120

Skhalta — kp 080

tadzrisi — kp 201

tiselis seri — kp 203

Bibliography

atskuri winery — kp 211/212

chivchavi gorge — kp 087

Eli baba — Kp 116

klide — kp 225

Orchosani — kp 249

sakire fortress — kp 199

saphar-kharaba — kp 120

tadzrisi — kp 201

tiselis seri — kp 203

Site Overview

Cultural History

Capacity Building

SiteReports

Bibliography

Site
Reports